The mid-1850s were a transformative period in America, as societal changes were underway. Most people lived on farms and engaged in home-based industries, but significant national and global events and new inventions were reshaping lifestyles. Historians refer to this era (1850-1870) as Britain’s Golden Years, marked by rising national income fueled by industrialization, particularly in textiles and machinery. In the U.S., social changes accelerated after the Civil War.
Technological advancements brought about labor-saving inventions such as sewing machines and cast-iron stoves, while improved transportation through railroads and steamboats enhanced the movement of goods. The increased availability of inexpensive products—from printed fabrics to cookware—greatly improved the standard of living.
Amid this backdrop, billiards surged in popularity. Billiard saloons sprouted in cities, making the game a staple of social life. Michael Phelan (1819 – 1871) partnered with Tobias O’Connor and Hugh William Collender to establish Phelan & Collender, one of the first American billiard table manufacturers. Michael achieved national recognition by winning the first U.S. national billiards championship in 1859.
This demand in billiards raised concerns about the sustainability of materials used in billiard equipment, especially ivory, which was prized for its density and bounce. As the demand for ivory grew, so did awareness of its ecological consequences. A passionate player and businessman, Phelan sought to address this issue. In 1864, he publicly offered a reward of $10,000 (approximately $250,000 in 2024 USD) for anyone who could develop a suitable alternative to ivory, underscoring his commitment to wildlife preservation and the sport.
From the 1600s onward, ivory was preferred for billiard balls, but alternatives like clay, wood, and stone proved inadequate. A viable substitute had to meet several specifications: hardness, rebound, uniform density, resilience, strength, even roll, durability, aesthetic appeal, and a specific friction coefficient, all while measuring 2 3/8 inches in diameter and weighing 7 ounces. No other natural organic material met these requirements.
Significant experiments in university laboratories paved the way for innovation in a related development. Christian Schönbein (1799-1868), a professor of chemistry and physics at the University of Basel, made a groundbreaking discovery in 1845. After accidentally spilling a mixture of nitric and sulfuric acids at home, he used his wife’s cotton apron to clean it up. When he hung the apron over the stove to dry, it ignited, converting cellulose into nitrocellulose.
Intrigued, Schönbein reproduced the reaction and discovered that the treated cotton dissolved in ether and alcohol, leaving behind a plastic-like substance. Nitrocellulose, known by various names such as pyroxylin and collodion, became essential in diverse applications, from medical dressings to early photography.
During this period of innovation, John Hyatt (1837-1920), a printer from New York, learned of Phelan’s reward for an ivory substitute. On April 6, 1869, he was granted U.S. Patent #88633 for a material blending fibrous substances with gum shellac into a fine powder. By applying heat and pressure, Hyatt created a dense body suitable for molding, aiming to produce a robust substitute for ivory.
Although Hyatt’s initial product did not meet all the specifications for billiard balls, he continued innovating. As in many development projects, good innovators look for other applications for their invention to work when the initial targets do not. Nitrocellulose was used for printing inks, and he discovered that touching the inks while applying camphor balm to his hands produced a gooey substance. He kneaded the substance into a ball that could be colored, then rolled, sheeted, and pressed into blocks. After drying, the blocks were sliced and further fabricated. The material would soften at 100 degrees Celsius and then be pressed into shapes. It could be sawed, drilled, turned, planed, buffed, and polished at room temperature.
Hyatt and his brother Isaiah acquired U.S. Patent #105338 in 1870, marking the birth of Celluloid, a reliable and cost-effective semi-synthetic material. They trademarked the term Celluloid in 1873. Hyatt established the Celluloid Manufacturing Company, which eventually was acquired by the Celanese Corporation. Celluloid found applications in dentures, hair combs, and many other products. Most celluloid objects were made between 1846 and 1950. An interesting tidbit is that the common raw cellulose ingredient used in making nitrocellulose was waste from cotton mills, clothing production, or spinning plants. This is another mark of great innovation in using waste products to be “upcycled” by creating new products.
Meanwhile, in England, Alexander Parkes (1813-1890) patented Parkesine in 1855, also aiming to replace ivory. Despite the initial promise, he struggled to commercialize his invention. His employee, Daniel Spill, took over in 1868 and founded the Xylonite Company, but it failed by 1874. Spill persisted, producing Xylonite and Ivoried products at home, eventually attracting investors to establish the British Xylonite Company in 1877, which later thrived as BX Plastics.
Spill’s lawsuit filed in 1875 led to a lengthy legal battle with Hyatt over patent infringement. Initially ruling in Spill’s favor in 1880, the court’s decision was reversed in 1884. Hyatt’s patent acknowledged the prior use of camphor as a solvent for xyloidine, highlighting the interconnectedness of these innovations. The rivalry and collaboration among these pioneers shaped the future of billiard balls and laid the groundwork for modern plastics.
Phelan’s contributions to billiards reflect a legacy intertwined with the broader social and technological transformations of the mid-19th century. As America evolved, so did its pastimes, emphasizing the intersection of leisure, industry, and environmental consciousness. Michael Phelan’s commitment to finding a sustainable alternative to ivory exemplifies early ecological awareness, paving the way for future innovations in sports and manufacturing. By the way, no one won the $10,000 award, and because Hyatt’s material had an explosive component, billiard ball materials were quickly replaced with other semi-synthetic materials.
The content reflects our best research and analysis based on available resources. While every effort has been made to ensure accuracy and comprehensiveness, we acknowledge that new information or developments that could impact the findings may emerge. So, the content is meant to represent our understanding within the given context and timeframe and should not be considered exhaustive or definitive. We welcome all feedback.
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